Inflation and Fiscal Policy in the UAE

Inflation and Fiscal Policy in the UAE Table of Contents (jump to) 1. Inflation in that existing economy then suggested an applicable solutions to cope these statement Political and Social Stability Oil and Mineral Resources Agricultural Resources 2. Evaluate advantage and disadvantages of the current fiscal policy and monetary policy being implemented in the chosen country 3. Find out and explain the effectiveness of various economic growth reforms that were carried out in the past years Dubai to sustain % GDP growth in 2014 DH953.2 Billion GDP estimates at current 2013 Abu dhabi’s GDP up 5.6% in 2012 Contribution of extractive industries to Abu Dhabi’s GDP amounted to 5% in 2011 4. Examine the effect of the balance of payment on the exchange rates in the chosen country explaining. How the chosen country manages its foreign debt 1. Inflation in that existing economy then suggested an applicable solutions to cope these statement Thirty years back the UAE was one of the slightest created nations of the world. Today, it has attained a wage level practically identical to that of the industrialized countries. The UAE did not pass through the speculative advancement organizes that most created nations appear to have encountered. Rather, its extensive oil incomes have permitted her to jump these stages to the phase of high mass utilization. Monstrous oil incomes have empowered the UAE to alternate way the normally troublesome and long procedure of sparing and capital amassing important for financial improvement. Given a wealth of common asset blessings (oil and gas), the UAE has grasped asset based commercial ventures (RBI) as an advancement procedure, a mechanical technique that is focused around use of characteristic assets. There has been a sending of windfall wage, to a great extent coordinated at a for the last time help to the social and investment foundation, which empowered the UAE to attain a critical lev el of investment advancement inside the exact concise time period of 1973 to 1982, a period of moderately high oil costs (Kandil, Morsy, 2011). Prior to the disclosure and fare of oil, the economy of the Trucial States (which today structure the UAE) depended predominantly on subsistence farming, itinerant creature cultivation, the concentrating of pearls and the exchange pearls, angling, and marine. The period before the revelation of oil, hence, reflected the nations restricted regular assets, and brought about a basic subsistence economy (Kandil, Morsy, 2011). Political and Social Stability Since its shaping in 1971 the UAE has appreciated a political steadiness. The current political structures seem to suit the tribal pop culture of the UAE and the dissemination of immense oil incomes as social and financial base, high compensations, an elevated expectation of social administrations, for example, wellbeing and training has raised the expectation for everyday comforts for UAE nationals and impressively decreased the probability of inward political and social turmoil. It is worth saying that the UAE Government has kept up a generally decent record on human rights since the creation of the state. This thus has pushed political and social strength (Alà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ mulali, Sab, Binti, 2011). The UAE is a dynamic part of numerous provincial and universal affiliations, for example, the Middle Easterner League, the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab Gulf Cooperation Gathering, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Oil and Mineral Resources The UAE is blessed with incomprehensible stores of oil, both seaward and coastal. Co partnered gas from raw petroleum generation and non-partnered gas is likewise created. Since the early 1970s the UAEs incredible development has depended to a great extent on the revelation and abuse of oil. The oil and gas commercial ventures are generally overseen and the most recent innovation is persistently tackled to build beneficial productivity. As indicated by the UAE Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources, the UAE most extreme reasonable every day limit of oil generation (greatest creation rate that might be managed day by day for one year in current states of misuse) is 2 million barrels a day (Alà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ mulali, Sab, Binti, 2011). Agricultural Resources The aggregate zone of area under farming and ranger service constitutes short of what 1.5 for every penny of the aggregate area territory of the UAE. Agribusiness has made just a little commitment to GDP (3.8 for every penny in 1999). There has, notwithstanding, been a reliable and significant expand in the measure of area committed to horticulture and ranger service in the course of recent years as the aftereffect of supported exertions by the UAE Government to advertise farming improvement utilizing the accompanying motivations (Osman, Louis, Balli, 2009): Agricultural plots are conceded allowed to any UAE national. Land is leveled and arranged mechanically for nothing. Production inputs, for example, seeds, manures, and insect sprays are given at half cost. Water wells are bored free of charge. There is procurement of free specialized administrations, for example, establishment of water pumps (Osman, Louis, Balli, 2009). 2. Evaluate advantage and disadvantages of the current fiscal policy and monetary policy being implemented in the chosen country Regardless of the UAEs pay rates positioning higher than the worldwide normal, supplementary expenses excessively are shooting up. As indicated by Dubai Statistics Center, on the premise of purchaser value information, expansion in Dubai rose to its most elevated amount in the most recent four years in October. Lodging and utility expenses, which represents just about 44 for every penny of purchaser costs, climbed 3.2 for every penny year-on-year and 0.2 for every penny month-on-month individually in October. Despite the fact that sustenance and drink costs climbed by 1.8 for every penny yearly, October costs fell 0.4 for every penny from the past month (Osman, Louis, Balli, 2009). In a Bayt.com compensation study of UAE experts, discharged not long ago, 28 for every penny of experts said their compensations expanded just hardly while an alternate 28 for every penny reported a moderate build. Around 19 for every penny of respondents said there was no change. The greater part of experts reviewed ascribed their pay climb to swelling and the climbing average cost for basic items while around 80 for every penny said that climbing rents constituted a significant a piece of their living costs. Be that as it may as business certainty gets in front of the Expo 2020 offer, Dubais lopsided climb in compensations in connection with rents could go about as a focused disservice in holding ability at later stages. It is important that as per the Bayt.com MENA Salary Survey (May 2013), 47 for every penny of UAE respondents accept that their steadfastness is 70 to100 for every penny connected to their compensation, consequently showing that pay is a key driver for corporate faithfulness for a lions share, said Suhail Masri, VP of offers, Bayt.com (al-Awad, 2013). This general pattern is seen over the Middle East that organizations must start to address; in doing thus, they will have the capacity to help building worker steadfastness and fulfillment, and will have the chance to decrease the amount of representatives looking to change employments inside the one year from now. Masri said that in spite of the lodging remittance given to UAE workers being the third most astounding in the district, climbing living expenses for occupants are a reason for concern. 3. Find out and explain the effectiveness of various economic growth reforms that were carried out in the past years Dubai to sustain % GDP growth in 2014 Billions of dollars worth of realty ventures to help economy Dubais economy is relied upon to develop around five for every penny not long from now, a comparable pace to 2013, the leader of its detail office said on Monday. Development in the Gulf emirate, the districts exchange and business center, grabbed firmly a year ago, floated by the possibility of government land ventures worth many billions of dollars. It is normal that development will arrive at around five for every penny in 2013,   official chief Arif Obaid Al Muhairi said on the Dubai Statistics the economy developed around 4.5 for every penny in the initial nine months of a year ago, he said. Dubai represents a quarter of yield of the UAE economy, with oil-fueled Abu Dhabi in charge of around 65 for every penny (al-Awad, 2013). The UAE, one of the worlds top oil exporters, has yet to discharge 2013 GDP information. DH953.2 Billion GDP estimates at current 2013 The Statistics Center-Abu Dhabi (SCAD) affirmed yesterday throughout a question and answer session held at the Abu Dhabi Economic Media Club, the last comes about and budgetary studies for 2012, which registered the GDP for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and GDP gauges for 2013 (al-Awad, 2013). The Conference was gone to by Mr. Nasser Dayan, Director of Economic Statistics Department, Dr. Mohammed Al Dhaheri, Director of Field Surveys, Ms. Shamma Al Rumaithi, Director of National Accounts, and Mr. Osama Al Zugbi, Assistant Director of Economic Statistics Department. Mr. Nasser Dayan expressed that the vital comes about and assessments arrived at by SCAD on investment advancements in Abu Dhabi a year ago demonstrated that all financial exercises and divisions, oil and non-oil, accomplished development (Termos, Naufal, Genc, 2013). Abu dhabi’s GDP up 5.6% in 2012 In its yearly report for 2012, the Department ascribed the slower development in 2012 to the slight climb in the oil division in both creation and costs contrasted and 2011. It demonstrated Abu Dhabis true GDP remained at Dh678 billion in 2012 and said that notwithstanding the loosening development in 2012, Abu Dhabis economy kept up its recuperated and came back to its solid pace, exploiting the powerful enhancement methodology received by the emirates legislature as of late. The report demonstrated the oil division accomplished a 3.8 for every penny true development in 2012, which was lower than past rates acknowledged by the action throughout 2010 and 2011 (Termos, Naufal, Genc, 2013). Interestingly, non-oil exercises reinforce the increases accomplished over the recent years, and transformed into a solid mainstay of budgetary execution in the emirate, it said. Non-oil investment exercises recorded true development of 7.7 for every penny in 2012, contrasted with 6.7 for every penny and 6.1 for every penny in 2011 and 2010 separately. This considered absolutely the commitment of non-oil exercises to the true GDP of the Emirate, which rose to 48 for every penny in 2012 contrasted with 44 for every penny in 2007. A breakdown demonstrated the land division developed by 16.7 for every penny in 2012, as an immediate consequence of the noteworthy recuperation of offers exercises in the land part in the Emirate (Basher, Elsamadisy, 2012). The assembling division stretched by 9.7 for every penny to a record Dh41.5 billion, the report indicated Contribution of extractive industries to Abu Dhabi’s GDP amounted to 5% in 2011 The extractive business is the spine of the economy of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, and a standout amongst the most vital parts of the national pay of the emirate, where oil incomes are utilized within development of base tasks, and in addition other monster national commercial enterprises. The commitment of extractive industry to the GDP of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi arrived at 58.5% in 2011, as an aftereffect of high oil costs in world markets, and the expand in creation of oil in Abu Dhabi. OPEC normal oil value rose from Us$77.45 for every barrel in 2010 to Us$107.46 for every barrel in 2011 (Basher, Elsamadisy, 2012). Aggregate Fixed Capital Formation: The aggregate altered capital framing in the extractive business movement rose from Dh 7.8 billion in 2006 to Dh 48.8 billion in 2011 at a yearly development rate of 44% on normal throughout the period, while settled capital shaping in the action developed by 11.6% in 2011 (Hamaideh, 2010). 4. Examine the effect of the balance of payment on the exchange rates in the chosen country explaining. How the chosen country manages its foreign debt Conversion scale administrations can harshly be characterized into three classifications: settled (pegged), adaptable (gliding) and moderate administrations. Before 1970s, most economies worked under settled conversion standard administration known as the Bretton-Woods framework. Under this framework, nations altered their trade rates against US dollar and the dollar was worth a settled measure of gold. All taking part coinage were certainly pegged to the gold. The framework was broken down following 25 years (1946-1971) yet the arrangement of altered conversion scale remained the favored administration in numerous nations. The fundamental inspiration for keeping trade rates settled is the conviction that a stable swapping scale can encourage exchange and speculation streams between nations by diminishing variances in relative costs and by lessening vulnerability (Hamaideh, 2010). Since 1971, economies have been moving towards adaptable conversion standard administrations, where the estimation of the cash is controlled by the business. In this setting, the residential coin, all else equivalent, devalues when interest for the remote money expands or supply of the outside cash diminishes and acknowledges when interest for the outside coin abatements or supply of the remote coin builds (Hamaideh, 2010). References Kandil, M., Morsy, H. (2011). Determinants of Inflation in GCC.Middle East Development Journal,3(02), 141-158. http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S1793812011000351 Alà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ mulali, U., Sab, C., Binti, C. N. (2011). The impact of oil prices on the real exchange rate of the dirham: a case study of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).OPEC Energy Review,35(4), 384-399. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.17530237.2011.00198.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=userIsAuthenticated=false Osman, M. A., Louis, R. J., Balli, F. (2009). Output gap and inflation nexus: the case of United Arab Emirates.International Journal of Economics and Business Research,1(1), 118-135. http://inderscience.metapress.com/content/h815u130l51p1493/ al-Awad, M. M. (2013). Ex Ante Inflation Rates in the UAE. http://repository.yu.edu.jo/handle/123456789/535773 Termos, A., Naufal, G., Genc, I. (2013). Remittance outflows and inflation: The case of the GCC countries.Economics Letters,120(1), 45-47. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165176513001468 Basher, S. A., Elsamadisy, E. M. (2012). Country heterogeneity and longà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ run determinants of inflation in the Gulf Arab states† .OPEC Energy Review,36(2), 170-203. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1753-0237.2011.00208.x/abstract?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=userIsAuthenticated=false Hamaideh, M. E. (2010).A Risk Management Strategy To Hedge Projects Against Cost Escalation Caused By Price Inflation(Doctoral dissertation, British University in Dubai). http://bspace.buid.ac.ae/handle/1234/328

Drug Discovery And Development

Drug Discovery And Development A drug is created through lots of stages. This essay provides the description of the basic concepts of drug discovery and development, and identifies the role of some medicinal chemistry, such as pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. There are lots of processes of creating new drugs, where we may mainly distinguish between drug discovery and drug development. Drug discovery comes about in several different ways. The method is to subject new chemical entities to a set of screening tests designed to detect different types of biological activity. These include in Vitro screens as well as in Vivo screens. The history of drug discovery has changed gradually. Before 1990, medicines were produced by chemical synthesis or were isolated from existing compounds exhibiting poly-pharmacology or side effects, such as plants and herbs. Also, screenings were carried out through low throughput screening. More recently, the understanding of human receptors and substances which cause specific activity has proceeded, so this led to new drugs, such Cimetizine and Ranitizine. The studies of DMPK and ADME have progressed as well, so the studies were applied to drug discovery. In addition to that, the change from low throughput screeni ng to high throughput screening allowed mass screening. Since 2000, the incredible advance of understanding of the human genome has led to novel medicines, such as Aranesp, Epogen, and Enbral, which are more biological than before. Toxicology developed and has been adapted to drug discovery as well. At the same time, attempts with using computers are increasing. As I mentioned above, the method of finding lead compounds has changed. Nowadays, main six methods to find lead compounds are becoming popular. Firstly, it is to improve existing drugs. Secondly, it is to create new drugs on the basis of natural products. Also, rational drug design using protein crystallography is becoming popular. The rest is high throughput screening, fragment screening, and virtual screening. In addition, there are the main two methods of designing structures, which are structure based design and ligand based design respectively. Targets of finding new lead compounds are mainly eight targets, which are re ceptors, enzymes, ion-channels, nuclear receptors, kinases, bacterial/viral targets, human genome, and others. The process of drug discovery is complex, so it takes 4 to 8 years to finish it. In the process of drug discovery, the small structural changes of chemicals sometimes cause large changes and effects. For instance, propranol shows both ÃŽ ²1 andÃŽ ²2 adrenoceptor selectivity. On the other hand, atenolol shows only ÃŽ ²1 adrenoceptor selectivity. The structural differences between propranolol and atenolol are small, but their showing effects are different respectively. Once a new chemical compound has been discovered, drug development has to be carried out, culminating in its being licensed for use and marked. Preclinical tests on isolated tissues and in animals should ensure that the drug has the required mechanism of action and at least in animals will produce appropriate system responses. At this stage, the new drug will be tested against standard drugs in comparative assays. Toxicity tests in animals should in most cases allow some prediction of toxic effects in humans. In comparisons of drugs used clinically, potency does not necessarily relate directly to therapeutic usefulness. It is important to consider also the maximum achievable response and the incidence of unwanted effects. Clinical testing in humans involves four phases. Phase 1 is the measurement of pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics and side effects in healthy volunteers. Phase 2 is pilot studies in small groups of patients to confirm that the drug works on the target condit ion and to establish the dosage regimen to be used in phase 3. Phase 3 is formal clinical trials in a large number of patients to determine the incidence of unwanted effects. Phase 4 is post marketing surveillance to establish efficacy and toxicity in general use. The detection of rare, adverse effects is most likely to occur in this phase. It takes 5 to 8 years to finish this stage, and costs much money than drug discovery stage. It takes about 10 to 12 years from an idea to marketable drugs totally. Also, it takes approximately 800 million dollars to develop one new drug. The duration of a drugs patent from the time of its registration with the UK Patent Office is 20 years. Therefore, pharmaceutical industries have to recoup their investment and make a profit, some of which will spend researching and developing other drugs. After a drugs patent expired, other pharmaceutical companies can make and sell the quite similar drug which is called a generic drug. As a result, the price often drops significantly. As a generic drug has become popular among people due to the price and the efficacy, generic drugs market is growing rapidly. The definition of medicinal chemistry Medicinal chemistry is a chemistry based on discipline which is involved in aspects of biological, medical and pharmaceutical science. Also, it is concerned with the invention, discovery, design, identification and preparation of biologically active compounds. The chemistry is a study of their metabolism, mode of action at a molecular level, and relationships between chemical structure and activity. The role of pharmacokinetics in drug discovery and drug development Pharmacokinetics is the science of exploring the changes in drug concentrations throughout the body with time. It is important to understand the time course of drug effects. The time course of drug action usually follows that of the concentration at the target site. There are 4 main phases in the pharmacokinetic process, which are absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs can be administered through the gut or by other route, which is called absorption. Most drugs dont spread rapidly throughout the whole of body water. A drugs penetration into these compartments is indicated by its volume of distribution that would be required to hold the amount of drug in the body at the measured plasma concentration. The plasma membrane of the cells constitutes a hydrophobic lipid barrier and drug permeation can occur by direct distribution through the lipid and carrier mediated transport. Diffusion of a drug depends on its concentration gradient and its diffusion coefficient. The concentration gradient established within the cell membrane depends on the drugs lipid/water partition coefficient. This is estimated by the drugs distribution between water and a simple organic solvent. Most drugs are ionised in aqueous solution. The ionised form is hydrophilic, so the ionisation impedes passive membrane permeation. When a drug enters the body, it is subjected to the processes that have been developed for dealing with toxic foreign molecules, which are called metabolism and excretion. The liver is the main site of drug metabolism, and the kidney is the main site of excretion. There are some important terms in pharmacokinetics, which are half-life, AUC, and drug clearance. Half-life is the time taken for any given plasma concentration to decrease by 50%. AUC is a measure of the extent of absorption. Drug clearance is defined as the volume of plasma cleared of drug per unit time. Drug metabolism in drug discovery The main purpose of drug metabolism is to cause detoxification. Metabolism involves two main processes. Firstly, the molecule is made more hydrophilic to reduce the possibility of reabsorption in the renal tubules. Secondly, it is conjugated to reduce its effects and aid excretion. As I mentioned above, there are two phases of metabolism. Phase à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚   is mainly oxidative reactions, such as oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis. The oxidation of a drug requires the cytochrome P450 which is the major enzyme. Phase à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¡ is conjugation reactions with sugar residue, such as glucuronidation, glycosidation, and sulfation. UDPGT is the main enzyme at this stage. Interestingly, there are species differences in metabolism. For example, lidocaine is metabolised to 4-hydroxylidocaine by hydroxylation in rats. On the other hand, lidocaine is metabolised to monoethylglycinexylidide by deethylation in dogs or men. The main reason why these differences occurred is the difference o f enzymes between species. There are some particular enzymes in men and dogs, but there may be not the enzymes in rats. When the situation happens, species differences occur in metabolism. to The role of pharmacology in drug discovery Pharmacology concerns the study of how drugs affect the function of host tissues or combat infectious organisms. In most cases, drugs bind selectively to target molecules within the body, usually proteins but other macromolecules as well. The main drug targets are receptors, enzymes, ion channels, and transporters. It is generally desirable that a drug should have a higher affinity for its target than for other binding sites. One of the main roles of pharmacology in identifying new drugs is drug target identification with using compounds known pharmacological properties to identify new target mechanisms, and identifying new receptors, ion channels, transporters, and enzymes. Receptors are protein molecules in or on cells that act as recognition sites for endogenous ligands such as neurotransmitters, hormones, inflammatory mediators. Many drugs used in medicine make use of these receptors. The effect of a drug may produce the same responses to an endogenous ligand or prevent the actio n of an endogenous ligand. A drug that binds to a receptor and activates the cells response is termed an agonist. A drug that reduces or inhibits the action of an agonist is termed an antagonist. Some drugs produce the maximum response that the tissue can give. These are termed full agonists. Other drugs may not give the maximum tissue response in any concentration, which is called partial agonists. A drug shifts the equilibrium in favour of the non active form, so reducing background activity. Such drugs are referred to as inverse agonists. An antagonist is defined as a drug that reduces the action of an agonist. There are three main antagonism mechanisms, which are competitive antagonism, irreversible antagonism, and non-competitive antagonism. A competitive antagonist binds to the receptor and prevents the binding of an agonist. If the antagonist binds reversibly, then the effect of the antagonist can be overcome by raising the concentration of the agonist so that it competes mor e effectively for the binding sites. In irreversible antagonism, the antagonist binds irreversibly, reducing the number of receptors available for binding. In non-competitive antagonism, the antagonist does not block the receptor itself but blocks the signal transduction process initiated by receptor activation. Enzymes catalyse a chemical reaction, so convert substrates to products. In most cases, enzymes are proteins, and their targets are intracellular. Ion channels are fundamental membrane proteins, and convey ions across cell membranes. There are three main types of ion channel, which are voltage-gated channels, ligand-gated channels, and G-protein regulated channels. Voltage-gated channels are closely involved in ion gradients, and make the tissues excitable. Ligand-gated channels consist of a number of transmembrane subunits. The channel governs fast cell to cell communication. G-protein regulated channels modulate the excitability of excitable tissue. Transporters are protei ns which can penetrate a cell membrane without modifying it, and transport substances. Drugs can modify this action by blocking a binding site, or acting as a false substance, and being transported into a cell. The importance of oral administration and oral bioavailability Oral administration is the most convenient and acceptable route, because of the importance from the point of view of patients. It is much easier for patients to take medicine orally than taking by other routes. The important factors of oral drugs are potency, selectivity, rapid dissolution, and rapid transfer across the membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, low clearance, absence of dose independent and time independent in pharmacokinetics, and no interaction with other drugs. Oral bioavailability is the proportion of the orally administered dose that reaches the systemic circulation. Incomplete release from the dosage form, destruction within the gut, poor absorption and first-pass elimination are important causes of low bioavailability. There are two main factors controlling oral absorption, which are physical barriers and biological barrier. Physical barrier comprises solubility, ionisation, lipophilicity, drug formulation, and interaction with other substances. As I discussed above, solubility, lipophilicity, and ionisation are closely related to absorption. Drugs must dissolve to establish a concentration gradient for absorption, the rate and extent of absorption depending on the pharmaceutical formulation. Rapid absorption of a drug requires its disintegration into small particles. In general, food will slow absorption by reducing the drugs concentration. On the other hand, biological barriers comprise efflux, transporters, and metabolism. Efflux is a biological reaction which forces out unnecessary substances. The reaction prevents drugs from entering inside of a cell. Metabolism is one of the biological barriers, because of different enzymes which are mainly CYP 450. Transporters are one of biological barriers, but the role of transporters preventing drugs from entering an interior cell is not clear now. The example of drugs Histamine is a mediator in both acute inflammation and the immediate hypersensitivity response. There are two main types of histamine receptor which are H1 and H2 receptors. Antihistamine drugs can target each receptor type. The main physiological aspects of the gastrointestinal tract are gastric acid secretion. The excess of gastric acid secretion cause peptic ulcers. In peptic ulcer, the balance between gastric acid secretion and mucosal-protective mechanisms is altered. The main approach to peptic ulcer is drugs used to reduce acid secretion. The H2 receptor antagonists, Cimetizine, Ranitizine, reduce gastric acid secretion in response to histamine, gastrin, and food. The proton pump is responsible for the secretion of gastric acid into the stomach. Therefore, the proton pump inhibitors show the effect of reduction in the secretion of gastric acid. Antibacterial drugs are compounds used to treat bacterial infections. There are some targets for antibacterial drugs, such as cell wall, nucleotide mechanism, and protein synthesis. One of the important targets is cell wall which provides support for the membrane. Its main constituent is peptidoglycan which is an excellent target for drugs. Drugs affecting peptidoglycan synthesis include penicillins and penicillin G. Conclusion I learned the basis of drug discovery and development through these lectures, and I found the importance of medicinal chemistry, such as pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. It is essential to understand medicinal chemistry for discovering and developing novel and ideal drugs. At the same time, I feel we should consider discovering and developing drugs from the point of view of patients as well.

The Cobb-Douglas Production Function for South Africa Essay -- South A

Introduction For every firm to produce goods it needs inputs such as capital and labour. Mankiw (2005) refers to capital set of tools that workers use in the process of production e.g. Machineries such as computers whereas labour refers to the hours that employee invest working. Production function refers to the output of a firm, an industry or an entire economy for all combination of inputs (Banaeian and Zangeneh, 2001).Economists use production function to precise the relationship between labour and capital and according to Mankiw (2005). Production functions reveal the available technology for transforming labour and capital into output. Tang (2008) highlighted the fact that theory of productivity was proposed by Knut Wicksell in 1851 which contributed a lot towards the works of Charles Cobb and Paul Douglas. Cobb-Douglas production function was developed by Cobb and Douglas in 1928 which is a fundamental function even now in both Macroeconomics and Microeconomics. The Cobb-Douglas production function is normally utilized by economists in the direction of explaining the correlation between contributions of resources involved in production such as labour, capital and technology.Cobb-Douglas production function and constant elasticity of substitution functions are playing a significant role for analysis in economics. Cobb-Douglas production function is still universally used toward the analysis of productivity and growth (Felipe and Adams, 2005). Felipe and Adam accepted as true that Paul Douglas is one of the economists who deserved a Novel Price for his marvelous works. Cobb and Douglas suggested that elasticity of substitution between capital and labour should be constant or equals to one even though they did not specify ... ....worldbank.gov. (2011). Data on Gross Domestic Product and Total employment of South Africa. World Bank. http://www.southafricanreservebank.co.za. (2011). Data on Fixed Capital Stock of South Africa. South African Reserve Bank Mankiw, NG. (1995). â€Å"The Growth of the Nations†. Brookings paper of economics activities. pp 275-326 Mankiw, NG. (2005). Macroeconomics, International edition. Worth Publishers: New York Mankiw, N.G (2013) Principle of Macroeconomics 7th edition. Congage Learning: United States of America Romer, P.M. (1986). Increasing returns and long run growth. Journal of political economy Vol 94. Pp 1002-37 Romer, P.M. (1990). Capital, Labour and productivity. Journal of political economy Vol. 98, No 5: university of Chicago. Pp 339341 Solow, R.M (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic growth. Quarterly Journal of Economics. Pp 65-94

History and Vectors of Rabies Essay -- Medical Disease

History and Vectors of Rabies Literally meaning â€Å"madness and fury†, rabies is commonly recognized by the characteristic foaming of the mouth and wild behavior. However, this is only the tip of the iceberg. This disease is spread through the saliva of infected carriers. Rabies is a viral disease that targets the nervous system which is always fatal with the exception of a single case. Natural remedies and spiritual therapies were used in hopes of warding away this fatal disease until the discovery of vaccination revolutionized medicine. This mysterious virus has a very unique history dating back to the first civilizations. The earliest mentioning of rabies in the past is a set of documents existing back as early as 2300 B.C. These legal documents explained the penalty when an owner’s pet caused any deaths resulting from the animal’s bite (Alan 1). This is the first written document acknowledging the existence of rabies. Pre-Socratic philosophers had discussed the â€Å"seed of disease† which gave the people a greater understanding on diseases in general. Well known philosophers and doctors, such as Hippocrates, Aristotle, Democritus, Celsus, Galen, and Pliny, discussed the nature of rabies during their eras but were commonly dismissed due to the insignificance of science at the time, people would often would overlook the complexity of this virus. The Roman doctor Celsus focused on the effect of rabies on humans during the first century A.D., especially prophylaxis and hydrophobia (Alan 2). He focused on treating this disease, although he admitted that there was â€Å"very little hope for the sufferer† once the extreme symptoms had revealed themselves (Alan 3). His treatment included cauterizing and bleeding the wound in order to allow t... ...and of the future discover an effective cure. As for now, there are still numerous breakthroughs to be discovered. Works Cited Jackson, Alan C., and William H. Wunner. Rabies. London: Elsevier Science, 2002. Kaplan, Colin, et al. Rabies the Facts. Ed. Colin Kaplan. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1977. MMWR Dispatch. â€Å"Investigation of Rabies Infections in Organ Donor and Transplant Recipients.† Morbidity and Mortality Weekly 53.26 (July 2004): 586-589. 24 July 2007 . West, Geoffrey P. Rabies in Animals and Man. Ed. Newton Abbot. Great Britain: David & Charles Limited, 1972. Willoughby, Rodney E, Jr, et al. â€Å"Survival after Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma.† Survival after Treatment of Rabies with Induction of Coma 24 ser. 352.2508-2514 (June 2005). The New England Journal of Medicine. 22 July 2007 .

Jet Airways :: Case Study

Introduction: Accounting is the pillar of every company to measure its growth, loss, revenue , capital, its really specify the real terms in foam of figures and sometimes in tables, in accounting there are certain rules are obtained to make more accuracy while playing with figures. To apply and the all ‘ rules of game‘of an business we taking an aviation company known as â€Å"Jet Airways† before we get into, here are some intro points about this company. History: Jet Airways was found in 1st April 1992 by Mr. Naresh Goyal and they started their operation after one year may 5th 1993, Jet began international operations from Chennai to Colombo in March 2004. The company was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange Jet airways India’s second major airline in terms of market shares after Indigo airlines based at Mumbai known as India’s economic capital in addition to being its India’s widest network with 3000 flights a day with 76 destinations worldwide, main operations are handle from Mumbai but secondary hubs are Delhi (Nation Capital of India) Kolkata and Bangalore, It has an international hub at Brussels Airport, Belgium. Founder &Management: Naresh Goyal, the founder Chairman of Jet Airways, India’s premier airline, has over 4 decades of experience in the Civil Aviation industry. After graduating in commerce in 1967. Mr Goyal begin his travel business with GSA for Lebanese international airline, himself chairman holding 80% of company shares. Currently this airline running with six boards of directors: 1. Mr. Javed Akthar 2. Mr. Iftikar M. Kadr 3. Mr. Aman Mehta 4. Mr. James Hogan 5. Mr. Gaurang Shetty 6. Mr. James Rigney After an overview of jet airways now we mould its ratios and figures: Accounting Principles & Standards: Accounting principles are main consideration , certain standards like rules of operations are pillar characteristicis to built accounting statements. Accounting principles can be presented in many ways, sometimes its create confusion for readers mainly for beginners, but still acoounting principles are main tool to obtained financial statements. Its hold the whole acoounting process together. In order to make useful, there are some characteristics such as being practical and dependable. As a dependable for it must be acurate, unbiased and verifiable and practically accounting information must be compareable, prepared in a time frame, user friendly, consistent and able to differentiate. In accounting beside these characteristics, certain operational rules are obtained are following: †¢ How a firm matched their revenue with expenses †¢ At what time expenses are revenue has been reported

Effects Packaging Materials on Shelf Life

EXPERIMENT 1: THE EFFECTS OF PACKAGING MATEIAL ON SHELF LIFE OF CRACKERS Introduction The type of food, chemical composition, size, storage conditions, expected shelf life, moisture content, aroma and appearance are just a few of the characteristics that must be taken into consideration when selecting the right material for a food product. A continuing trend in food packaging is the design of packages to extend the shelf life of foods while maintaining fresh-like quality.This places a high demand on selecting materials that not only provide the needed properties to maintain the quality of the food but it must be done at a cost effective price. The permeability of the packaging material is one of the most critical features of the package for affecting the quality of the food product. Objectives: I) To calculate the moisture uptake of different packaging materials II) To assess the texture hardness of the products by sensory analysis and texture analyzer III) To determine the estimated shelf-life of the products Materials:Crackers, packaging materials- HDPE, PP, Paper bag, aluminium foil, etc: plastic sealer: weighing balance, texture analyzer . Procedure: Two bags (duplicate) of crackers for each packaging materials was provided. The bags were filled with crackers, and then was weighed and stored at 25? C for 2 weeks. Two packets of crackers from the commercial packaging materials was weighed and stored at 25? C for 2 weeks as control. Each of the packets was reweighed after a week and the mean moisture uptake was determined after a week.After 1 week, for the commercial products, the packet was kept empty by removing all traces of the contents and the weight of the empty packages was weighed. The original mass of the contents was calculated according to the calculation given. From the results, the time (in weeks) before packages allow to uptake of 1% moisture (based on the mass of the content) was calculated. At this point (1% moisture uptake) was assumed, the p roduct had reached the end of its shelf life, and the result of the estimated shelf life was reported. Assessment of Crispiness: A) The means of ‘crispiness’ was decided in group. Sensory AnalysisThe commercial crackers as ‘standard’ was taken and each one of the crackers was bite down by using the incisor teeth only. The degree of crispiness was noted and this crispiness of the rating was given of 100. The crispiness of crackers was rated from different types of packet in the same manner by comparing each to the ‘standard’. As example, if you feel a biscuit is half as crispy as the standard, give it a rating of 50: if it twice as crispy gives it a rating of 200. A mean rating and SD of crackers of each type of packaging was calculated. B) Texture Analysis This method is using texture analyser TA-XT2 with the 3 point bending rigThe operating parameters of the analyzer was set and followed as below: TA setting Force in compression Return to star t Approach speed : 1. 0 mm/s Test speed : 0. 1 mm/s Post test speed : 2mm / s Distance : 10 mm (this may be made smaller if the crackers easily break Units : Newtons and millimeters Rig distance 40. 0 mm apart At least two crackers were prepared. the width and thickness of the crackers was measured, in the plane of the probe by vernier caliper. The crackers were placed on the right side up on the rig supports. The test was run.The Young’s Modulus was calculated from point 1. The breaking force from point 2 was recorded. With the cursor, from the graph that had been illustrated after the test run, the point 1 at d = 0. 1 mm was identified. The force and distance was recorded (chown on top left of screen). The force was converted from grams to Newtons and distances to metres. With the cursor, the point 2, the breaking point was identified. The force and distance was recorded. The force was converted from grams to Newtons and distance to metres. Identified whether Young’s modulus or breaking force are more reproducible parameter on the biscuits.Discussion: Moisture sensitive foods are susceptible to change in their environment and if it left opened will first become stale. Water migration and diffusion is considered to be one of the most important factors for the moisture sensitive foods. Moisture content analysis allows for a quantitative measure of the total amount of water present in a food item which can influence the texture, taste, and appearance of food products. According to military specification PCR-C-037, â€Å"Crackers, Fortified, Packaged in a Flexible Pouch, Shelf Stable†, moisture content shall be not less than 1. 5 percent and not greater than 4. percent. From the result obtained in this experiment, we discovered that the percentage of moisture content after 1 week for crackers in commercial packaging for mean for both sample was 0. 48% and 0. 48% after 2 week. Next for the HDPE packaging the moisture content for week 1 for sa mple 1 and 2 was 0. 95% and increased to 2. 14 % at week 2. The same situation happened for the PP packaging, the mean moisture content of crackers for week 1 for sample 1 and 2 1. 19 % then decreased to 0. 95 % at week 2. For the paper bag, the mean moisture content of the crackers for sample 1 and 2 at week 1 was 3. 2 % but increased to 4. 54% after 2 week. From the result, we observed that the commercial packaging material had lowest moisture loss followed with PP, HDPE and paper bag had the highest lost of moisture content of the crackers. It is because the paper bag had a high porosity to allow the moisture absorb on the paper. Sensory analysis allows for evaluation of food items with respect to appearance and palatability. Acceptability of the crackers was determined by a trained sensory evaluation panel, which assessed and rated the cracker for flavor, taste, odor, and texture.Ratings were based on a 9-point qualitative scale for each cracker attribute, along with an overall quality score for the cracker. According to military specification PCR-C-0372, â€Å"Crackers, Fortified, Packaged in a Flexible Pouch, Shelf Stable†, the cracker must receive an overall score of 5. 0 or higher based on the 9-point scale to be considered acceptable. From the evaluation of the crackers in different types of packaging materials, we observed the texture for both sample was ranked as 8 means it have a very good texture and do not stale, the color of the commercial packaging was very bright gold and ranked as 8.For the odor and taste, the commercial packaging was ranked as 7 which mean the aroma of the crackers was retained and retain the freshness of the taste of the crackers. The appearance of the crackers was ranked as 8 because the condition and shape of the crackers was still retained in original shape. The overall acceptability of the commercial packaging crackers was ranked as 7 and the crackers with commercial packaging have the highest ranked among the ot her packaging materials.In short, we can concluded from the sensory evaluation the texture of the crackers was well preserved by using commercial packaging followed by PP, HDPE and lastly paper bag. For the color of the crackers, the commercial packaging obtained the highest ranked followed by PP, HDPE and lastly paper bag. The color of the crackers in the paper bag packaging was very light yellow indicates the staling of the crackers. For the odor evaluation, as the same expected, the commercial packaging had the better odor, followed with HDPE, PP and lastly paper bag.Nest the evaluation of appearance, the commercial crackers packaging had better appearance followed with PP, HDPE and lastly crackers in paper bag packaging had poor appearance because the crackers had not retain the original crackers shape. The taste of the crackers was difficult to evaluate but the crackers from commercial packaging had the better taste and the freshness of crackers was retained, while the crackers from HDPE and PP packaging had the same crackers taste but the crackers from paper bag packaging had a very poor taste, the taste of the crackers was lost because of the moisture uptake of the crackers.The overall acceptability of the crackers from commercial packaging was 7 which means acceptable followed by PP and HDPE packaging but the crackers from paper bag packaging was assumed had a very poor acceptability due to the moisture uptake. The texture analysis was conducted because the presence of moisture is known to affect the hardness of food items like the crackers, as they absorb moisture from the environment around them. The crispiness means the force at which is the significant break in curve (not always present) or force at which material fracture.From the texture analysis, the result had showed that the crispiness of the crackers from the commercial packaging for sample 1 was 923. 45 and 773. 2 for sample 2, with overall mean for these two samples was 848. 32. Nest for th e HDPE packaging the crispiness of the texture were lowest compared to commercial packaging which result 632. 7 for sample 1 and 990. 2 for sample 2 with overall mean for two samples was 811. 45. The PP packaging showed for the sample the crispiness of the crackers was 858. 85 for sample 1 and 993. 45 for sample 2. Lastly for the paper bag packaging, the sample 1 had 1093. 25 and 793. forsample 2 and the mean for crispiness for both sample was 943. 53. For the determination of crispiness of the crackers in different type of packaging, we observed that crackers from commercial packaging had the highest crispiness rating which was 100 0 followed with PP packaging with reading obtained 75 0, HDPE 50 0 and lastly the crackers from the paper bag packaging with rating 25 0. Food packages made with plastic are permeable at different degrees to small molecules as example gases, water vapour, and organic vapour and to other low molecular weight compounds like aromas, flavour, and additives p resent into food.As a consequence of the barrier properties of the material, the transfer of this molecules ranges from high to low. The information of the solution/diffusion/permeation behaviors of these molecules through the polymer film has become important for polymers used in the food packaging. Many factors that can influence the polymer packages performance must be taken into consideration to design the correct package market solution.The use of different polymers in food packaging industry depends on the properties of the food product and also in manufacturing, handling, and packaging engineering procedures can influence the final properties of packaging material, especially in terms of barrier properties which are related to the intrinsic structure of the polymer such as degree of crystallinity, crystalline, nature of polymer, thermal and mechanical treatment before and after food contact, chemical groups present into the polymer, degree of cross-linking, and glass transiti on temperature.High density polyethylene (HDPE) was first developed for packaging as a film before being introduced as a bottle for milk in 1964. Its use for packaging has increased because of its low cost, flexibility, durability, ability to withstand the sterilizing process, and resistance to many chemicals. Polyethylene plastics have the generally advantageous properties of toughness, high tensile strength, and good barrier properties to moisture.A particularly important property of polyethylene plastics, which is due to their relatively low melting point ranges, is the ease with which packaging can be heat-sealed. The barrier properties of polyethylene plastics to oxygen andorganic substances are only moderate. These characteristics, along with properties such as clarity and stiffness, vary with the basic polyethylene parameters of density/crystallinity, molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution As food packaging, HDPE is most commonly associated with milk, oil, and ju ice bottles.Non-food packaging uses include supermarket bags, cleaning product containers, motor oil containers, agricultural films and chemical containers, paper bag liners, bags, crates, drums, and pails. Different grades of HDPE are used for different purposes. For example, there is a blow mould grade (used for milk bottles, and detergent bottles) and an injection grade material (ice cream containers). Disadvantages of HDPE as a packaging material include its low resistance to UV light and gas permeability.New technologies, such as barrier coatings and multi-layer materials, are being introduced to improve these characteristics. Conclusion: From the result from moisture content, sensory evaluation and texture analysis we can conclude that the packaging that had the highest moisture uptake which was 3. 82% for week 1 and 4. 54% for week 2 while the lowest moisture uptake was crackers with commercial packaging which was 0. 48% for first and second week. This is also supported by th e texture analysis which obtained that crackers for commercial packaging had 0. 48 kg, for PP packaging was 0. 811 kg followed with 0. 926 for HDPE packaging and 0. 943 kg for paper bag. The crispiness ratings obtained described that crackers from commercial packaging had the highest crispiness rating which was 1000, PP 750, PP 500 and paper bag was 250. From this evaluation, we conclude that the commercial packaging was the most preferred way in preserving the crackers quality, followed with HDPE packaging, PP packaging and the paper bag was the less preferred packaging for crackers due to highest moisture ptake. References: Philip T. , (2003). Packaging Materials Polyethylene for Food, Packaging Applications, 1-68 Nagi. H. P. S. , Kaur. J. , Dar. B. N. and S. Sharma (2012). Effect of Storage Period and Packaging on the Shelf Life of Cereal Bran Incorporated Biscuits. American Journal of Food Technology, 7: 301-310. Valentina. S. (2012). Food Packaging Permeability Behaviour: A Rep ort, International Journal of Polymer Science, Volume  2012, 1- 11.

Supported by the lines

The first thing that can take immediately one’s attention about the poem is its rhythm. The lines contained therein would be appealing for children to read, but they would have difficulty in interpreting its meaning. I, for one, distinguished the meaning of the poem as something like a tiger stalking through the forest in the dead of the night. Yet, I also imagined that the poem talks about a constellation of stars resembling the shape of a tiger in â€Å"the distant deeps or skies.†The first paragraph is clear that the tiger is walking along through the forest, perhaps hunting for its prey. This is supported by the lines â€Å"In the forest of the night, what immortal hand or eye could frame thy fearful symmetry. † The would-be-prey in this poem could be a human being. The man fearing the tiger because of the lines â€Å"and when thy heart began to beat, what dread hand? And what dread feet? in what furnace as thy brain? what the anvil?What dread grasps dare it s deadly terror clasp? † The poem was always in an â€Å"inquiring mode. † Meaning, it asks so many questions; literally, the poem is littered with question marks. The reader would find it sometimes difficult to read the poem with ease and fluidity, because what he unconsciously does is to pause after a line, then tries to answer the question for each line. Nevertheless, the poem did manage to create a sense of beauty surrounding the mystery of the tiger hunting in the night.After reading the poem, I arrived at the conclusion that the poem will appeal to children because of its rhythm and the subject of the poem, yet it would appeal also to inquiring adults because of the intricacies posed by the questions in the poem. Three questions for other students; 1) What does the word â€Å"Lamb† in the poem stand for? 2) â€Å"On what wings dare he aspire? † what does this line mean? 3) Why did William Blake describe â€Å"Tyger† as burning bright?